Teorías cognitivas dinámicas o de tercera generación: análisis documental de artículos originales de investigación cualitativa / Dynamic or Third-Generation Cognitive Theories: A Documentary Analysis of Original Qualitative Research Articles

Resumen En los últimos años ha crecido el interés por la búsqueda de evidencia científica sobre el nuevo paradigma de la cognición dinámica, pero la gran mayoría de publicaciones se han hecho a partir de diseños cuantitativos, lo que evidencia que es necesario complementar la investigación con diseños cualitativos. El objetivo del presente manuscrito es valorar la cantidad y calidad de la publicación científica basada en diseños de investigación cualitativos, en el área de las teorías dinámicas de la cognición o teorías cognitivas de tercera generación. Estas teorías proponen que la cognición es un fenómeno corporeizado, extendido, situado y enactivo. Se realizó un análisis documental en las principales bases de datos internacionales sobre artículos científicos con diseño cualitativo. Se seleccionaron catorce (14) artículos que cumplieron los criterios de inclusión y respondían al objetivo de la revisión. Se encontró que, aunque la investigación cualitativa en este campo es escasa, comparada con la investigación cuantitativa, se observó un potencial de estos diseños en el estudio de las teorías cognitivas dinámicas en distintos ámbitos, a saber, psicología, salud, funcionamiento y discapacidad, educación, actividad física y deporte, arte, lingüística, filosofía de la mente, entre otros. Los resultados y conclusiones de las investigaciones revisadas aportan sustento teórico de la cognición corporeizada, enactiva, extendida y situada, y soportan el objeto de estudio de las ciencias cognitivas emergentes: "el sistema cerebro-cuerpo-en el mundo".

Abstract In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the search for scientific evidence on the new paradigm of dynamic cognition, but the vast majority of publications have been based on quantitative designs, evidencing the need to complement research with qualitative designs. This manuscript aims to assess the quantity and quality of scientific publications based on qualitative research designs in the area of dynamic theories of cognition or third-generation cognitive theories. These theories propose that cognition is an embodied, extended, situated, and enactive phenomenon. A documentary analysis was carried out in the main international databases on scientific articles with qualitative design. Fourteen articles were selected that fully met the inclusion criteria and responded to the objective of the literature review. Although qualitative research in this field is scarce compared to quantitative research, the potential of these designs is observed in the study of dynamic cognitive theories in different fields: psychology, health, functioning and disability, education, physical activity and sport, art, linguistics, philosophy of mind, among others. The results and conclusions of the research reviewed provide theoretical support for embodied, enactive, extended, and situated cognition, and support the object of study of emerging cognitive sciences: "the brain/body-in-the-world system."

Application of Embodied Cognition in Speech Therapy (review) / 中国康复理论与实践

Embodied cognition is an important research direction in current psycholinguistics. Perceptual symbols theory, indexical hypothesis, immersed experiencer framework, symbol interdependency hypothesis and mirror neuron system are important research achievements of embodied cognition in the field of language, which may light a way for the further development of speech therapy.

La subjetividad en la ciencia cognitiva y el análisis del discurso: ¿terreno común? / Subjectivity in cognitive science and discourse analysis: common ground?

Una de las preguntas centrales de la Inteligencia Artificial que sigue vigente es qué distingue el humano de la máquina. Uno de los planos en los que se estudia y se aprecia la existencia y/o la manifestación de esa distinción es el discurso. Como la subjetividad ocupa un lugar central en el Análisis del Discurso (AD), ella se contempla como potencial factor determinante en la distinción entre discurso generado por humano y por máquina. Sin embargo, las características de la expresión de la subjetividad en el discurso constituyen también objetos de investigación de la Ciencia Cognitiva (CC), donde se buscan, además, sus correlatos neuronales. Es sumamente relevante, entonces, incluir la perspectiva cognitiva en el estudio de la subjetividad con la elaboración de una síntesis de los aportes de la CC al estudio de la subjetividad en los niveles contemplados por el AD como constituyentes de ella. Esta síntesis es el objetivo del presente artículo. Para llevarla a cabo, se revisan los enfoques cognitivos que abordan los rasgos de la subjetividad contemplados en el AD. Esto nos permite trazar el camino que recorre el concepto del 'yo' en el área antes delimitada, sistematizando de esta manera las definiciones propuestas.

One of the still open core questions of Artificial Intelligence is what differentiates humans from machines. Discourse is one of the levels on which its existence and/or expression is usually studied and discussed. As subjectivity plays a central role in Discourse Analysis (DA), we consider it a potential determinant factor in the distinction between human and machine-generated discourse. However, the features of subjectivity expression in discourse are also the object of study of cognitive science, in which its neural correlates are moreover sought. It is, thus, highly relevant to include the cognitive perspective in the study of subjectivity by elaborating a synthesis of its contributions in this field at the levels DA considers constituents of subjectivity. It is the aim of this paper to present such a synthesis. In order to meet this aim, we proceed to the review of the cognitive approaches that take into account the features of subjectivity studied by DA. This way, we outline the trajectory of the concept of self in the above mentioned field and systematize the definitions suggested for it.

Life Shaping, Habits of Mind, and Social Institutions

According to the enactivist view of the mind, there is close connection between being alive and being cognitive: to be alive is to be capable of cognitive engagements. The living organism does not passively receive and process stimuli from an external world, but rather helps to determine what counts as useful information on the basis of its structure, needs, and the way that it is structurally coupled with its surroundings. Sense-making is the process whereby it interprets environmental stimuli in reference to its survival needs. However, gauging meaning and significance in a complex social world such as ours goes well beyond mere survival and self-maintenance, and has much to do with adapting and faring well in a specific socio-cultural context. The achievement of human goals requires coordinated movement, which leads to the formation of built-up patterns of engagement and response. Over time, these characteristic patterns of movement and behavior become more engrained and come to comprise an individual's habitual manner of sense-making. Learning and socialization play a significant role, and habits of mind are formed via interaction with values, cultural norms, and other people. Once habits form and become more engrained, there is a sense in which social norms are internalized and sedimented in the body. Cognition and affectivity therefore are best seen as socially embedded and heavily modulated by relationships and norms. This environmental influence can either (i) cultivate adaptive habits of mind that promote human flourishing, or (ii) contribute to maladaptive habits of mind that alienate people from deep-rooted human needs and interfere with overall well-being. One setting in which habits of mind are profoundly modulated is the college or university. Inside higher educational institutions guided by neoliberal ideology, individuals are habituated to toxic interaction patterns and modes of valuation. Rather than cultivating critical thinking and promoting self-realization, these institutions often undermine such capacities. College and university settings in contemporary neoliberal democracies such as the United States thereby give us a powerful example of how social institutions sometimes serve to cultivate habits of mind that impede human flourishing.

Constituição da vida, hábitos mentais e instituições sociais / Life shaping, habits of mind, and social institutions

De acordo com a visão enativista da mente, há uma conexão muito próxima entre estar vivo e ser capaz de cognição: estar vivo é ser capaz de envolvimentos cognitivos. O organismo vivo não recebe passivamente, nem processa os estímulos do mundo externo; em vez disto, ajuda a determinar o que conta como informação útil na base de sua estrutura, necessidades, bem como o modo como está estruturalmente ligado a seu ambiente. A doação de sentido é o processo pelo qual ele interpreta os estímulos ambientais em referência a suas necessidades de sobrevivência. Contudo, avaliar o sentido e o significado em um mundo social complexo como o nosso vai muito além da mera sobrevivência e automanutenção e tem muito a ver com adaptar-se e sair-se bem em um contexto sociocultural específico. Para alcançar seus objetivos, os seres humanos precisam de movimentos coordenados que levam à formação de padrões internos de envolvimento e resposta. Com o passar do tempo, esses padrões característicos de movimento e comportamento tornam-se mais enraizados e acabam por abranger o modo de doação de sentido habitual de um indivíduo. O aprendizado e a socialização desempenham um papel significativo, e os hábitos mentais são formados por meio da interação entre valores, normas culturais e as outras pessoas. Uma vez formados e enraizados os hábitos, tem-se o sentido pelo qual as normas sociais são internalizadas e sedimentadas no corpo. Cognição e afetividade podem ser compreendidas assim como socialmente inculcadas e em larga medida moduladas por relacionamentos e normas. Essa influência ambiental pode tanto (i) cultivar hábitos mentais adaptativos que promovam o florescimento humano quanto (ii) contribuir para hábitos mentais mal-adaptados, que alienam as pessoas afastando-as das necessidades humanas mais profundas e interferem no bem-estar geral. A faculdade ou a universidade constituem locais em que os hábitos mentais são profundamente modulados. Dentro das instituições educacionais orientadas pela ideologia neoliberal, os indivíduos são habituados a padrões tóxicos de interação e de avaliação. Em vez de cultivarem o pensamento crítico e a promoção da autorrealização, essas instituições frequentemente solapam tais capacidades. As faculdades e universidades nas democracias neoliberais contemporâneas, tais como nos Estados Unidos, oferecem-nos um exemplo poderoso de como as instituições sociais às vezes servem para cultivar hábitos mentais que impedem o florescimento humano.

According to the enactivist view of the mind, there is close connection between being alive and being cognitive: to be alive is to be capable of cognitive engagements. The living organism does not passively receive and process stimuli from an external world, but rather helps to determine what counts as useful information on the basis of its structure, needs, and the way that it is structurally coupled with its surroundings. Sense-making is the process whereby it interprets environmental stimuli in reference to its survival needs. However, gauging meaning and significance in a complex social world such as ours goes well beyond mere survival and self-maintenance, and has much to do with adapting and faring well in a specific socio-cultural context. The achievement of human goals requires coordinated movement, which leads to the formation of built-up patterns of engagement and response. Over time, these characteristic patterns of movement and behavior become more engrained and come to comprise an individual's habitual manner of sense-making. Learning and socialization play a significant role, and habits of mind are formed via interaction with values, cultural norms, and other people. Once habits form and become more engrained, there is a sense in which social norms are internalized and sedimented in the body. Cognition and affectivity therefore are best seen as socially embedded and heavily modulated by relationships and norms. This environmental influence can either (i) cultivate adaptive habits of mind that promote human flourishing, or (ii) contribute to maladaptive habits of mind that alienate people from deep-rooted human needs and interfere with overall well-being. One setting in which habits of mind are profoundly modulated is the college or university. Inside higher educational institutions guided by neoliberal ideology, individuals are habituated to toxic interaction patterns and modes of valuation. Rather than cultivating critical thinking and promoting self-realization, these institutions often undermine such capacities. College and university settings in contemporary neoliberal democracies such as the United States thereby give us a powerful example of how social institutions sometimes serve to cultivate habits of mind that impede human flourishing.

Action verb processing for exciting the motor cortex and promoting the recovery of upper limb function after stroke / 中华物理医学与康复杂志

Objective To explore the effect of action verb processing on the excitability of the motor cortex and any effect on the upper limb motor function of stroke survivors.Methods Experiment 1:The motor evoked potential by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS-MEP) was measured while 18 healthy subjects were processing concrete action verbs or abstract verbs.Experiment 2:Eight hemiplegic stroke survivors were asked to read silently text describing concrete hand actions,and then repeat and explain the meaning of the action verbs used in the text.This was repeated for 30 minutes per day,5 days per week for 3 weeks.In the 2nd week the same training was conducted except that the text was about abstract verbs.The modified Ashworth scale (MAS),Fugl-Meyer assessment (FMA),the Hong Kong version of the functional test for a hemiplegic upper extremity (FTHUE-HK) and a simple test for evaluating hand function (STEF) were used to assess upper limb motor function before and after the training each week.Results Experiment 1:Processing the concrete action verbs induced significantly greater MEP than processing the abstract verbs.Experiment 2:The average FMA and STEF ratings improved significantly after the training each week.Training with the concrete action verbs resulted in significantly better FMA and STEF scores than with the abstract verbs.The average MAS score increased significantly week by week.There was significantly more improvement in the average FTHUE-HK rating after the 1st and 3rd week of training than after the 2nd week.Conclusion Action verb processing induces greater motor cortex excitation than abstract verb processing among healthy subjects and better improves the upper limb motor function of stroke survivors.

Facial Feedback: Limited Effect for Videos of Opposite Emotions / Feedback Facial: Efectos Limitados para Videos de Emociones Opuestas / Feedback Facial: Efeitos Limitados para Vídeos de Emoções Opostas

To prove the hypothesis of facial feedback (FF) for opposite emotional stimuli, 30 participants viewed a happy video, with 15 of the participants posing a sad expression; another 30 participants viewed a sad video, with 15 posing a joyful expression. Levels of joy, sadness, anger and anxiety were recorded before and after the videos. All observers of the happy video showed a decrease in sadness, but those who posed for sadness expressed lesser decrease. For their part, participants who posed joy during the sad video recorded an increase in anger and anxiety, attributed to having to pose for joy. No evidence was found that FF can counteract the effects of an intense emotional stimulus. The evidence related to the controlling of the intensity of an opposite emotion was also limited. The study found that posing for joy while undergoing sadness could provoke other negative emotions. The study questions the practical usefulness of FF.

Con el objetivo de probar la hipótesis del feedback facial (FF) para estímulos emocionales opuestos, 30 participantes vieron un video feliz, 15 posando una expresión triste; y otros 30 participantes vieron un video triste, 15 posando una expresión de alegría. Se registraron los niveles de alegría, tristeza, ira y ansiedad antes y después de ver los videos. Todos los participantes que vieron el video feliz mostraron una disminución en la tristeza, pero aquellos que posaron tristeza durante el mismo, mostraron una disminución menor. Por su parte, los participantes que posaron alegría durante el video triste indicaron un aumento de la ira y la ansiedad, atribuido a tener que posar alegría. No se encontró evidencia de que el FF pueda contrarrestar los efectos de un estímulo emocional intenso. La evidencia relacionada con la regulación de la intensidad de una emoción opuesta, también fue limitada. Se encontró que posar alegría durante la experimentación de tristeza, podría provocar otras emociones negativas. Se cuestiona la utilidad práctica del FF.

Com o objetivo de provar a hipótese do feedback facial (FF) para estímulos emocionais opostos, 30 participantes assistiram a um vídeo feliz, dos quais 15 posaram com uma expressão triste, e outros 30 participantes viram um vídeo triste, dos quais 15 posaram com uma expressão de alegria. Registraram-se os níveis de alegria, tristeza, ira e ansiedade antes e depois de assistir aos vídeos. Todos os observadores do vídeo feliz mostraram uma diminuição na tristeza, mas os que posaram tristeza durante esse vídeo expressaram uma diminuição menor. Por sua vez, os participantes que posaram alegria durante o vídeo triste registraram um aumento de ira e ansiedade, atribuído a ter que demonstrar alegria. Não se constatou evidência de que o FF possa neutralizar os efeitos de um estímulo emocional intenso. A evidência relacionada com a regulação da intensidade de uma emoção oposta também foi limitada. Constatou-se que posar alegria durante uma experiência de tristeza poderia provocar outras emoções negativas. Questiona-se a utilidade da prática do FF.

Los Secretos de Cien Años de Soledad: Una Aproximación Estilométrica para la Investigación en Psicolingüística / The Secrets of One Hundred Years of Solitude: A Stylometric Approach for Psycholinguistic Research / Os Segredos de Cem Anos de Solidão: uma Aproximação Estilométrica para a Pesquisa em Psicolinguística

De acuerdo con la estilística y la crítica literarias, Cien Años de Soledad de Gabriel García Márquez, se caracteriza por aludir constantemente a los personajes de la historia y narrar los eventos en tono neutro. En este artículo se utilizan métodos estilométricos para ratificar dichas afirmaciones y proveer nuevas visiones sobre la novela. Estos métodos incluyen, entre otros, el conteo de palabras y de frases, la construcción de árboles de consenso, el cálculo de la polaridad de las oraciones, e índices para cuantificar la complejidad y el nivel de concreción del texto. Los resultados indican la tendencia del autor a emplear, frecuentemente, palabras abstractas y palabras referentes a objetos con los que se puede interactuar físicamente, para producir el efecto lingüístico propio del realismo mágico. Dada la importancia de los hallazgos, se plantean algunas ideas acerca de las implicaciones que la metodología puede tener en áreas de la psicolingüística y de la psicología cognitiva

According to stylistics and literary criticism, One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Márquez is characterized by constant allusion to historical characters and a neutral tone in the narration of events. In this article, stylometric methods are used to support these statements and provide new insights into the novel. These methods include, among others, word and phrase count, the construction of consensus trees, the calculation of the polarity of the sentences, and indexes to quantify the complexity and the level of concreteness of the text. Results show the tendency of the author to frequently employ abstract words and words referring to objects with which one can interact physically, to produce the linguistic effect of magical realism. Given the importance of the findings, the article poses some ideas about the implications that the methodology may have for psycholinguistics and cognitive psychology.

De acordo com a estilística e a crítica literárias, Cem anos de solidão, de Gabriel García Márquez, caracteriza-se por fazer alusão constante aos personagens da história e narrar os eventos sobre o neutro. Neste artigo, utilizam-se métodos estilométricos para validar essas afirmações e oferecer novas visões sobre o romance. Esses métodos incluem, entre outros, a contagem de palavras e de frases, a construção de árvores de consenso, o cálculo da polaridade das orações e os índices para quantificar a complexidade e o nível de concreção do texto. Os resultados indicam a tendência do autor a empregar, com frequência, palavras abstratas e palavras referentes a objetos com os quais se pode interagir fisicamente para produzir o efeito linguístico próprio do realismo mágico. Tendo em vista a importância dos achados, propõem-se algumas ideias acerca das implicações que a metodologia pode ter em áreas da psicolinguística e da psicologia cognitiva.

Friedrich Nietzsche: the wandering and learned neuropath under Dionisius / Friedrich Nietzsche: o neuropata culto e vagante sob Dionísio

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was a remarkable philologist-philosopher while remaining in a condition of ill-health. Issues about his wandering/disruptive behavior that might be a consequence and/or protection against his cognitive decline and multifaceted disease are presented. The life complex that raises speculations about its etiology is constituted by: insight, creativity and wandering behavior besides several symptoms and signs of disease(s), mainly neurological one. The most important issue to be considered at the moment is not the disease diagnosis (Lissauer’s general paresis or CADASIL, e.g.), but the probable Nietzsche’s great cognitive reserve linked to the multifactorial etiology (genetic and environmental), and shared characteristics both to creativity and psychopathology. This makes any disease seems especial regarding Nietzsche, and whichever the diagnostic hypothesis has to consider the Nietzsche’s unique background to express any disease(s).

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) foi um notável filólogo-filósofo enquanto mantinha-se em uma condição de saúde precária. São apresentadas questões sobre seu comportamento errante/disruptivo que podem ser uma consequência e/ou protecção contra seu declínio cognitivo e doença multifacetada. O complexo de vida que levanta especulações sobre sua etiologia é constituído por: insight, criatividade e comportamento errante, além de vários sintomas e sinais de doença(s) principalmente neurológicas. A questão mais importante a ser considerada no momento não é o diagnóstico da doença (Paralisia geral de Lissauer ou CADASIL, por exemplo), mas a grande reserva cognitiva de Nietzsche ligada à etiologia multifatorial (genética e ambiental) e as características comuns tanto para criatividade ou psicopatologia. Isso faz com que qualquer doença do filósofo se expresse de forma especial, e qualquer que seja a hipótese diagnóstica tem que considerar a base especial de Nietzsche para expressar qualquer doença(s).

A virtualidade para a cognição situada / Virtuality and embodied cognition

A separação entre Mente e Corpo, introduzida pelo dualismo cartesiano vem, gradativamente, sendo substituída por novos modelos de representação do organismo humano. A Teoria da Cognição Situada introduz paradigmas que rompem com a hegemonia do cérebro frente a outras partes do corpo e com a ideia de que os processos cognitivos ocorrem exclusivamente a partir de etapas mentais e internas. Ao apresentar a cognição como fruto do acoplamento entre organismo e ambiente, esta teoria muda o eixo de muitas questões atuais. A partir disso, são abordados temas contemporâneos, como a virtualidade e algumas produções científicas e cinematográficas recentes­ como os filmes Matrix e Avatar ­ com o intuito de aprofundar esta discussão e apresentar alguns questionamentos a essa concepção de cognição

The historical divorce beetween body and mind, introduced by Descartes's dualismo, is gradually being substituted by other models of the human organism. The theory of embodied cognition brings in paradigms that rearrange the hegemony of the brain over the body and discloses the ideia that cognition processes occur exclusively from inner and mental activities. By introducing cognition as the result of the connection between organism and enviroment, this theory changes the axle of many present issues. From that on, some contemporaneous subjects ­ like virtuality e some movies, as "Matrix" and "Avatar" - can be approached with the goal of deepen this discussion and can present some other issues linked to this conception of cognition

Epistemological perspectives in the scientific study and evaluation of executive function / Perspectivas epistemológicas en el estudio científico y la evaluación clínica de las funciones ejecutivas / Perspectivas epistemológicas no estudo científico e a avaliação clínica das funções executivas

In this article, epistemological perspectives that have shaped and affected the scientific quest for understanding what neuropsychologists term "executive functions" are reviewed. Executive functions refer to the control functions of cognition and behavior. The underlying thesis of the paper is that one's epistemological orientation determines how one sees the interaction between brain functions and our status in the world. Each different orientation thus carries with it implications with regard to how executive functions operate, as well as how, therefore, one should try to assess them. Until recently, these functions were approached through two primary epistemological points of view. One is analytic, which has its roots in the positivistic movement. The other approach is synthetic, otherwise known as "romantic science", and forms the basis of the work of the prominent Russian neuropsychologist A.R. Luria. A third epistemological perspective, articulated under the umbrella of 'embodied cognition' approaches, has been advanced in the last 20 years, and is associated most closely with the work of Francisco Varela. A review of, and reflection on how these perspectives have affected research and clinical practice in neuropsychology is provided.

En este artículo se examinan perspectivas epistemológicas que han moldeado e influenciado la búsqueda científica orientada hacia comprender aquello que los neuropsicólogos denominan las "funciones ejecutivas (FE). El término funciones ejecutivas se refiere a aspectos de control de la cognición y la conducta. Las ideas expuestas en este manuscrito presuponen que la orientación epistemológica de una persona determina la manera en la que ella conceptualiza la interacción entre las funciones cerebrales y su entorno físico. Cada una de esas orientaciones conlleva suposiciones acerca del modo como operan las FE y, por ende, el modo como deben ser evaluadas. Hasta fechas recientes esto se había abordado principalmente desde el punto de vista de dos perspectivas teóricas. Una de ellas, la analítica, tiene sus raíces en el movimiento positivista. La otra, también conocida como "ciencia romántica" es sintética, y provee las bases del trabajo científico del muy celebrado neuropsicólogo ruso A.R. Luria. Una tercera perspectiva, formulada en el marco de la "cognición corpórea", ha sido propuesta en los últimos 20 años, y está más estrechamente asociada con los trabajos de Francisco Varela. Se examina aquí, por medio de una revisión reflexiva e integradora de la literatura pertinente, la manera como esas tres perspectivas epistemológicas han influido sobre la investigación y la práctica clínica de la neuropsicología.

Neste artigo examinam-se as perspectivas epistemológicas que moldaram e influenciaram a busca científica orientada à compreender aquilo que os neuropsicólogos denominam as "funções executivas (FE). O termo funções executivas se refere a aspectos de controle da cognição e a conduta. As ideias expostas neste manuscrito pressupõem que a orientação epistemológica de uma pessoa determina a maneira em que ela conceitualiza a interação entre as funções cerebrais e seu entorno físico. Cada uma dessas orientações leva a suposições sobre o modo como operam as FE e, portanto, o modo como devem ser avaliadas. Até datas recentes isto havia sido abordado principalmente desde o ponto de vista de duas perspectivas teóricas. Uma delas, a analítica, tem suas raízes no movimento positivista. A outra, também conhecida como "ciência romântica" é sintética, e fornece as bases do trabalho científico do muito celebrado neuropsicólogo russo A.R. Luria. Uma terceira perspectiva, formulada no marco da "cognição corpórea", foi proposta nos últimos 20 anos, e está mais estreitamente associada com os trabalhos de Francisco Varela. Examina-se aqui, através de uma revisão reflexiva e integradora da literatura pertinente, a maneira como essas três perspectivas epistemológicas influíram sobre a pesquisa e a prática da neuropsicologia.

Cognição incorporada: refletindo sobre a singularidade da condição sensório-motora no desenvolvimento humano / Embodied cognition: reflecting on the uniqueness of the sensory-motor condition in the human development

Quando nos referimos ao termo "sensório-motor", de acordo com a epistemologia genética piagetiana, estamos evocando conceitualmente um arcabouço teórico específico e que compreende fronteiras epistemológicas bem delimitadas. Todavia, sugerimos ampliar conceitualmente a proposta piagetiana em considerar o estágio sensório-motor não só enquanto uma das etapas de construção da cognição, mas na arregimentação permanente da totalidade de nosso ser. Logo, a criança, ao "ultrapassar" esta fase por volta dos dois anos, deixa-a de fato para trás na forma de "organização transcendente" de outros esquemas de ação. Como objetivo central deste Ensaio, proporemos oportunamente algumas reflexões que visam problematizar e ampliar significativamente o termo "sensório-motor" em sua conotação piagetiana, tecendo articulações com a tese de autores que defendem o intrincado processo de uma "cognição incorporada".

When we refer to the term "sensory-motor", according to Piaget's genetic epistemology, we are conceptually evoking a specific theoretical framework which comprises well-defined epistemological boundaries. However, how can we conceptually extend the Piagetian proposal by considering the sensory-motor stage not only as one of the stages of the cognition development, but in the permanent regimentation of the entireness of our being? Would the child, when "overcoming" such stage, at about two years of age, actually leave it behind in the form of "transcendent organization" of other action schemes? The central goal of this Essay is to propose some appropriate reflections aiming at significantly expanding and problematizing the term "sensory-motor" within its Piagetian connotation, by building joints with the thesis of authors who advocate the intricate process of an "embodied cognition."

Text Comprehension as a Problem Solving Situation / Comprensión de textos como una situación de solución de problemas

Research in text comprehension has provided details as to how text features and cognitive processes interact in order to build comprehension and generate meaning. However, there is no explicit link between the cognitive processes deployed during text comprehension and their place in higher-order cognition, as in problem solving. The purpose of this paper is to propose a cognitive model in which text comprehension is made analogous to a problem solving situation and that relies on current research on well-known cognitive processes such as inference generation, memory, and simulations. The key characteristic of the model is that it explicitly includes the formulation of questions as a component that boosts representational power. Other characteristics of the model are specified and its extensions to basic and applied research in text comprehension and higher-order cognitive processes are outlined.

La investigación en la comprensión de textos ha dado detalles de cómo las características del texto y los procesos cognitivos interactúan con el fin de consituir la comprensión y generar significado. Sin embargo, no existe un vínculo explícito entre los procesos cognitivos desplegados durante la comprensión de textos y su lugar en la cognición de orden superior, como en la resolución de problemas. El propósito de este trabajo es proponer un modelo cognitivo en el que la comprensión de textos se hace similar a una resolución de problemas y la situación que se basa en la investigación actual sobre los procesos cognitivos conocidos como la generación de la inferencia, la memoria y las simulaciones. La característica clave del modelo es que incluye explícitamente la formulación de las preguntas como un componente que aumenta la potencia de representación. Otras características del modelo se especifican y sus extensiones a la investigación básica y en la comprensión de textos y de orden superior los procesos cognitivos se describen aplican.

The Neural Basis of Optimism and Pessimism

Our survival and wellness require a balance between optimism and pessimism. Undue pessimism makes life miserable; however, excessive optimism can lead to dangerously risky behaviors. A review and synthesis of the literature on the neurophysiology subserving these two worldviews suggests that optimism and pessimism are differentially associated with the two cerebral hemispheres. High self-esteem, a cheerful attitude that tends to look at the positive aspects of a given situation, as well as an optimistic belief in a bright future are associated with physiological activity in the left-hemisphere (LH). In contrast, a gloomy viewpoint, an inclination to focus on the negative part and exaggerate its significance, low self-esteem as well as a pessimistic view on what the future holds are interlinked with neurophysiological processes in the right-hemisphere (RH). This hemispheric asymmetry in mediating optimistic and pessimistic outlooks is rooted in several biological and functional differences between the two hemispheres. The RH mediation of a watchful and inhibitive mode weaves a sense of insecurity that generates and supports pessimistic thought patterns. Conversely, the LH mediation of an active mode and the positive feedback it receives through its motor dexterity breed a sense of confidence in one's ability to manage life's challenges, and optimism about the future.

La comprensión de metáforas no requiere realizar simulaciones sensorio-motoras del dominio base / Comprehending a metaphor does not require sensory-motor simulations of the base domain

Existe evidencia de que las personas empleamos metáforas conceptuales (MCs) para interpretar expresiones metafóricas (EMs), aunque los datos disponibles con respecto a si la comprensión de éstas EMs requiere simulaciones sensorio-motoras de los dominios base de esas MCs es escasa y equívoca. Se llevó a cabo un experimento para determinar si dichas simulaciones sensorio-motoras son necesarias o enriquecen al menos la comprensión de EMs. Videntes y no videntes de nacimiento parafrasearon EMs novedosas derivadas de la MC ver-comprender. El nivel de comprensión alcanzado fue evaluado por jueces independientes. Los no videntes de nacimiento mostraron una muy buena comprensión de estas EMs y su rendimiento en esta tarea no fue inferior a la de los videntes. Se concluye que las simulaciones sensorio-motoras no son necesarias ni enriquecen la comprensión de EMs y que las MCs amodales resultan suficientes para la tarea. Se discuten las implicaciones de los resultados obtenidos para el enfoque corporeizado de la teoría de metáfora conceptual de Lakoff y Johnson.

There is evidence for the idea that people employ conceptual metaphors (CMs) to interpret metaphorical expressions (MEs), although the available data regarding the thesis that comprehending MEs requires sensory-motor simulations of the base domains of such CMs is scarce and ambiguous. An experiment was carried out to determine whether such sensory-motor simulations are necessary or at least enrich the comprehension of MEs. Sighted and congenitally blind subjects paraphrased novel MEs derived from the seeing-understanding CM. The congenitally blind showed very good comprehension of these MEs, and their performance on this task was not inferior compared to the sighted. It is concluded that sensory-motor simulations are not necessary nor do they enrich the comprehension of MEs, and that amodal CMs are enough for this task. Implications of the obtained results for the embodied view of Lakoff and Johnson's conceptual metaphor theory are discussed.

Similaridades entre a epistemologia genética de Piaget e a cognição incorporada / Similarities between the Piaget’s genetic epistemol ogy and the embodied cognition

Este artigo se concentrou nas similaridades entre cognição incorporada e epistemologia genética. Este novo ponto de vista amplia as possibilidades das ciências cognitivas e da psicologia do desenvolvimento. Este texto compara as teorias fundamentais de Piaget e as ideias da cognição incorporada. Este estudo concluiu que as duas teorias têm princípios similares sobre cognição, conhecimento, estruturas cognitivas, processos sensório-motores, percepção e ação

Ecolocación humana: Revisión histórica de un fenómeno particular - Segunda parte / Human echolocation: Historical review of a particular phenomenon - Second part

La ecolocación es una habilidad que usaría inconscientemente la mayoría de las personas. Resulta crucial para la movilidad independiente de la persona ciega e implica utilizar sonidos autoproducidos y sus reflexiones para localizar y reconocer objetos que no se ven. Dos nuevos paradigmas han enriquecido el estudio de esta sorprendente habilidad: el del acoplamiento sensoriomotor y el de la sustitución sensorial. El primero sostiene que los sistemas perceptivo y motor constituyen procesos acoplados que requieren un insoslayable tratamiento unificado. El segundo considera que es posible ver con los oídos o con la piel en virtud de la plasticidad cerebral. En esta segunda parte se presenta la temática en el contexto teórico de la cognición corporizada y de recientes avances en neurociencias; se desarrollan además los estudios realizados en el tercer período. En esta revisión se reflejan cambios paradigmáticos en las ciencias del comportamiento y el valor científico acrecentado de la ecolocación humana.

Echolocation is an ability that can be used daily by human beings, even without being conscious of it. It turns out to be crucial to the efficient independent mobility of the blind person, an aspect that is severely affected by blindness. It implies using the information that emerges from self-produced sounds and their reflexions in order to locate and recognize unseen objects. According to the new cognitive and ecological paradigms in perception, it is believed that the primary function of the auditory system is to determinate, i.e., to localize and recognize, the characteristics of the sound source through the sounds emitted by it. Within this context, it has been very recently argued that echolocation (i.e., the ability to locate and recognize biologically relevant secondary sound sources through the information contained in the direct-reflected couple) is a variant of that general process of primary sound sources determination. Two recently established scientific paradigms have specially enriched the study of this amazing ability: the sensorimotor contingency theory and the sensory substitution perspective. The first approach claims that the perceptual and motor systems are coupling processes that demand a thoroughly unified treatment. The second approach considers that, for example, vision loss does not mean loss of the ability to see since it is possible to see with the ears or the skin. The central idea is that the information usually captured by vision may instead be captured by touch or audition, on account of brain plasticity. In this way, in echolocation (which represents a kind of 'seeing with the ears' natural sensory substitution system that is part of the human endowment) action consists of the exploratory activity that the subject carries out through self-generation of sounds and head and/or cane movements while sensation refers to certain tonal or spatial percepts related to the presence and characteristics of the objects that the subject (implicitly) learns to perceive probably as auditory Gestalts. In the first part of this article the main theoretical aspects and a revision of the studies throughout two of the three delimited periods were developed: FIRST APPROACHES (1700 - 1935) and SIENTIFIC STUDY OF HUMAN ECHOLOCATION (1940 -1980). The questions that researchers formulated during these periods were firstly concerned with discovering if blind persons actually possessed this ability, which of the sense organs was involved and which sensory stimulation was its necessary and sufficient condition. Secondly, they inquired into the scopes of echolocation and its possible underlying psychoacoustic mechanisms. The thorough investigations carried out allowed to unequivocally establishing that audition is the sensory basis of this ability and that changes in pitch are its necessary and sufficient condition. It was also demonstrated that not only blind subjects but also appropriately trained sighted subjects were able to precisely localize and recognize the characteristics of the experimental objects. In this second part, we present the object of study within the context of theories of embodied cognition and recent developments in the field of the neurosciences; we also elaborate upon studies carried out during the third period, named RECENT STUDIES, that extends from 1990 to present days. We show how the blind person with good echolocation ability becomes an excellent experimental model to study behavioral and neurophysiological aspects involved in implicit learning. The article illustrates the paradigm shifts that occurred in recent scientific history through the study of this particular human ability that, within the mentioned recent theoretical context, has acquired a renewed interest.

El sistema de neuronas espejo: evidencias fisiológicas e hipótesis funcional / The mirror neurons system: physiological evidence and functional hypothesis

En este trabajo se comentan algunas evidencias anatómicas y fisiológicas que presenta una red de neuronas con propiedades de integración sensoriomotoras, denominadas “neuronas espejo”. Estas neuronas se caracterizan por codificar las acciones tanto realizadas por el propio individuo, como observadas; constituirían el sustrato neural de la comprensión del significado de las acciones de otros individuos. Se plantean además otras hipótesis que vinculan el sistema de neuronas espejo con la codificación de habilidades del comportamiento aprendidas, la capacidad de imitación de los humanos, el comportamiento social, la formación y comprensión de conceptos abstractos, la comunicación y el lenguaje. La ubicación del sistema de neuronas espejo en la encrucijada entre las áreas de la corteza cerebral en las que se procesan la información vinculada con orientación espacial, visión y audición, facilitaría la integración de las distintas modalidades sensoriales que se requieren para las acciones complejas aprendidas. Los “engramas motores” y el “patrón de inervación motora”, clásicamente postulados como mecanismos independientes de la codificación de las “praxias”, tendrían una existencia real como funciones complementarias del sistema de neuronas espejo cuyo centro se localiza en la circunvolución supramarginal ubicada en el lóbulo parietal inferior izquierdo. La lesión de esta estructura del sistema nervioso central, y de la sustancia blanca adyacente ocasiona el trastorno neuropsicológico conocido como “apraxia ideomotora”. A partir de la integración de la información sensorial y motora, el sistema de neuronas espejo puede también constituir el circuito de codificación de otros tipos de información, como el de conceptos abstractos y el uso de metáforas, lo que es una capacidad especial del ser humano.

This paper discusses some anatomical and physiological evidenc that shows a network of neurons with sensorimotorintegration properties, called “mirror neurons”. These neurons are characterized by encoding actions both made by the individual as reported, suggesting that it would constitute the neural substrate of understanding the meaning of the actions of otherindividuals. It also raised other hypotheses that link the mirror neuron system with coding skills learned behavior, the ability of imitation of human social behavior, training and understanding of abstract concepts, communication and language. The location of the mirror neuron system at the crossroads between the cerebral cortex areas in which they process information related to spatial orientation, vision and hearing, wouldfacilitate the integration of different sensory modalities required for complex actions learned. The “motor engrams” and “motor innervation pattern, classically postulated mechanisms independent of the encoding of” praxia “would have a real existence as complementary functions of the mirror neuron system whose center is located in the supramarginal gyrus located in the left inferior parietal lobe. Injury to this structure of the central nervous system and the white adjacent matter causes neuropsychological disorder known as ideomotor apraxia. From theintegration of sensory and motor mirror neuron system may also be the coding circuit of other types of information, such as abstract concepts and the use of metaphors, which is a special ability of the human.